Chapter 3. Procedures
 

Section 1: Preparation

Handling film

You handle film when you unpack it from the can, when you inspect it, when you thread it, when you project it, when you unthread it, and repack it. Handling also occurs when you clean, repair, splice, break down, make up and store film.

Each of these occasions is an opportunity for things to go wrong. But if you have learnt and practiced the right way to handle film you should have few concerns. More importantly, your suppliers will have confidence in your ability to care for their precious, and in some cases, irreplaceable films.

The procedures outlined below are set out in an approximate chronological order, from the time you take delivery of the print until you send it back. If you borrow films from the National Film and Sound Archive you will be required to complete and forward a report for each film. This requirement is mentioned at appropriate places in the text. It’s worth spending a few minutes on the report, as it is the most effective way of bringing the Archive’s attention to the need for repairs and replacements.

Unpacking the print

When you receive a print for screening it will be in a case containing several plastic or metal containers called ‘cans’. Each can contains a reel of film. Before opening a case you have just received, examine it for external damage. Note any damage for inclusion in your report.

When you open the case the cans should be a snug fit. Ideally, the cans should be wrapped in a layer of bubble wrap as extra protection, and any excess space in the case should be packed with bubble wrap or a similar material to buffer any movement of the cans during transit. Before opening each can inspect it for damage. Note any damage for inclusion in your report.

Each reel should fit snugly in its can. If the can is too big for the reel excess space should be packed to prevent the reel moving during transit. When unpacking, note that the can is the right size for the reel. If not, make a note to include in your report.

Identifying the print

For each reel in a print, before untaping the leader, carry out the following checks:

1: Ensure you have the right print by checking the film title is written on the leader.

2: Ensure all reels are included and in the right order. If you were expecting a 150 minute film but you received only two cans, you definitely have a problem. Check the cans and the leaders on each reel to work out which reel is missing. Even when the right number of cans arrives don’t rely on what is written on their labels. Check that each individual reel number and its sequential position eg ‘Reel 1 of 3’ or ‘Reel 1/3’ are written on the leader.

3: If you are expecting to screen the print in Cinemascope check that ‘scope’ is written on the leader. If it is not, inspect the film with a loupe or large magnifying glass to find out whether you have a scope print. The images on a scope film are compressed sideways by the camera lens, so they look unnaturally tall and thin. If the film images appear to be normal you won’t be needing the anamorphic lens.

If you are unable to identify a reel after inspecting the leader:

Single reel print:

Inspect the first section of image using a loupe or large magnifying glass. It may be easier to thread and project the reel from the start until you can identify it. If you do this, don’t try to save time by reversing the projector to rewind afterwards. Unthread the film and rewind it on the bench. Never reverse a projector with film threaded in the path.

Individual reels in a multi reel print:

Use a loupe or large magnifying glass to check the print’s other reels to make sure you have a complete print and that they fit together in sequence. You may need to do this on either the projector or the rewind bench.

After you have identified the reel, correct any wrong information on the leader or splice a new leader, preferably green, to the beginning of the film and write all essential information on it. After screening, correct any wrong information on the tail, or splice a new red tail to the end of the film and write all necessary details on it.

Note any problems for inclusion in your report. If all this sounds complicated, don’t be alarmed. In practice, most reels are easily identified very quickly.

Inspecting the film

When you take a reel out of its can, hold it vertically and look at one side, then the other. Take your time. Note any irregularities in the wind, such as perforation repairs and splices, that could affect smooth projection.

If you need to examine the film more closely, take it to the rewind bench and wind on slowly for a few metres of image, stopping as necessary and examining the film with a loupe or large magnifying glass to get a good idea of its condition. Examine as much of the print as you need to form an opinion. If you are still unsure, thread the print on to a projector and run it through until you are satisfied you know what to expect during a screening.

If necessary, strip the tape off bad splices and resplice (see 7. On the bench, below). Film is precious, so don’t cut out frames unless they are irretrievably damaged. Bad splices show up as wrinkled, bubbled, wrongly aligned and overlapping. They can all cause problems when they get to the gate. Note any damage or problem areas and any repairs carried out for inclusion in your report.

Getting the film ready

Ensure the film is wound on correctly, head out, ready for projecting. The start of each reel has a plastic leader that should be green. If the leader is red it is probably the end of the reel, which you can quickly verify by checking if the word ‘tail’ or ‘end’ appears on it. If the tail is out, rewind the film before doing anything else.

To make sure the film is correctly wound, hold the reel vertically in your left hand, so that when the leader is untaped it comes off the top of the reel to the right (clockwise). The perforations should be on the edge of the film closest to you (the near edge).

If the perforations are on the far edge of the leader it means either the tail is out, regardless of the leader’s colour and markings, or that the print has been wound on to the reel inside out. In either case, untape the leader, inspect the print to find out what needs to be done, then fix the problem on the rewind bench (see 4. Troubleshooting: preparation, getting the film ready, below).

Don’t even think about loading an incorrectly wound reel on the projector. In the past it wasn’t unknown for projectionists to thread an inside out film by twisting it through 180 degrees so that the perforations were on the correct side as they entered the film path. This practice can seriously damage old film, not to mention your reputation.

Section 2: Setting up

Setting up procedures are common to all projection systems. Each one needs a screen, which has to be positioned at the right distance from the projector. They all need power, they all have reel arms that fold or dismantle, they all need at least one spare reel and they are all connected to at least one speaker.

The screen

When you project a 16 mm film the width of the image on screen will be 1.33 times its height. This relationship between height and width (1: 1.33 in the case of 16 mm film) is called the ‘aspect ratio’. The image should fill the available white space on screen. To achieve this result you need to place your projector at the right distance from the screen, which can best be done by experimenting, using a short film to test for frame, focus and volume level, before the audience arrives. If you don’t have a test film, start the motor, turn on the lamp and move the projector or the screen or both until the projector’s light fills the available white area on screen. Adjust focus until the edges are sharp. Repeat the process until the sharply focused light slightly overlaps all four edges of the white screen space.

The distance between the lens and the screen, called ‘the throw’, is determined by the size of the screen and the focal length of the lens. The following table shows the relationship between various focal lengths, throw and screen sizes.

Table 1. Lenses, screen sizes and throw

If you are using a zoom lens, setting the throw is a much simpler process. You can position the projector at a wide range of distances from the screen and still fill the screen with a focused image.

When you set up the screen make sure it is clean and in good condition. Try to avoid vertical seams that make distracting lines down the middle of faces on screen. A badly wrinkled screen is not a good look. Brush off any cobwebs, wipe with a clean dry cloth to remove dust and if possible, remove mysterious spots.

It’s nice to have a screen that meets the highest industry standards. But if you can’t afford that level of quality, just about anything with a flat, white, non reflective surface will do the job. Everything from bed sheets to painted walls (ceiling paint is highly recommended) can be used, with varying levels of success.

Set the screen at 90 degrees, vertically and horizontally, to the lens. If the screen is not square to the lens, it will be impossible to get sharp focus on more than one section of the screen.

Masking

The screen should be surrounded by a solid area of black which serves to make the screen image appear brighter while creating a sharp border around it. Depending on the type of screen you use, the mask can be fabric, painted ply wood or just paint. Regardless, it must be exactly the right size, that is, slightly smaller than the full projected image. 

Projector stands

In most rooms projectors have to be elevated so the light beam isn’t interrupted between the projector and the screen. Special projector stands are available for this purpose, but they are generally not very high. So if you need to allow for people walking under the beam you will probably have to build one to suit your circumstances, or make a suitable platform.

Whatever you use, make sure it is strong enough to carry the weight of the projector/s easily and that it doesn’t wobble around. It’s also a good idea to round off any sharp or jagged corners.

Connecting to power

It doesn’t matter when you connect power to the projector, provided electricity is available when you want to start the show. A recommended practice is to plug in and turn on the power only after everything else is set up and checked.

Try to avoid using extension leads. If there is no alternative, make sure your extension lead is in good condition, the connection points are clean and there are no suspicious black smudges or melted plastic anywhere. Never use two or more leads plugged into each other. If you intend screening at different venues such as halls, it’s essential to have a lead, preferably 15 amp, long enough to go from the nearest wall socket, which is almost always at the screen end of the hall, to the projector at the other end. It’s handy to have two or three shorter leads as well, for the odd occasions when the wall socket is closer, so you don’t have a lot of excess lead lying around on the floor, creating an accident waiting to happen.

If you are about to plug in a projector you’ve never seen before, and no one can tell you anything about it, check it is set to take AC power at between 230 – 250 volts and at 50 cycles. This is usually inscribed on a plate somewhere, or there is a switchable indicator that can be set at various voltages. American projectors were generally manufactured to run on DC power at 110 volts and have to be converted to run on AC. If they haven’t been converted, they need a separate transformer.

With most projectors, polarity doesn’t matter. If your rare projector is polarity sensitive, test both the wall socket and your extension lead before using them. Small plug-in devices are readily obtainable for this purpose. If the wall socket polarity is incorrect you will have to use a different projector. If your extension lead is wrongly wired have a competent technician rewire it correctly. Don’t use it for any purpose until the polarity is corrected.

If you intend using a power generator, follow the manufacturer’s instructions religiously. And you will need a really long, heavy duty extension lead, otherwise your audience will have trouble hearing anything except the generator.

Preparing the projector

Getting the projector ready for a screening varies from make to make and model to model, but all projectors have a number of things in common.

The important points are:  

1. Make sure your projector is clean.

If your projector hasn’t been cleaned since the last screening, or you aren’t sure about its condition, clean it thoroughly, paying special attention to the gate and film path, before bringing film anywhere near it. Film is easily scratched by particles of dust and grit that accumulate in the gate, on sprockets and along the film path. Film also builds up static electricity, which attracts dirt.

Take extra time with the gate, where the film passes down a vertical channel where it is held in place by spring loaded side guides and metal plates. If grit is allowed to accumulate in this area it can destroy a print in a single screening. It has happened, so be warned.

Clean the vertical channel, the pressure plate, side guides and the sprockets with a toothbrush. Hard deposits should not be allowed to build up. To prevent this, run a small plastic scraper, toothpick, match or similar small wooden object along the channel, in the corners and anywhere else you think would benefit from the attention. Take your time.

Note: Never use metal to clean your projector. Screwdrivers, knives and chisels can scratch metal surfaces. While they may be invisible to the naked eye, these scratches can cause catastrophic damage to film. And if you damage your gate, finding a replacement could be a real problem.

Tip: Good quality cotton buds and isopropyl alcohol (IA) are a good cleaning combination. While the gate is open, don’t forget to run a cotton bud dipped in IA around the lamp aperture to keep the image edges sharp. Before closing the gate, check with your loupe to make sure you haven’t left any tiny fibres behind.

The sound drum and all rollers should be cleaned and wiped with IA. Don’t be afraid to use cotton buds dipped in IA anywhere along the film path. Cotton buds can get into all sorts of tight spots and you’ll be surprised at the amount of dirt they pick up. Never use a cotton bud more than once.

Finish the job with a quick wipe all over, including nooks and crannies that tend to be overlooked.

Cleaning lenses is another thing entirely. Lens coatings are very easily scratched. Get rid of loose dust with a puffer and soft lens brush. Don’t clean the main lens unless you absolutely have to, and then use only proper lens cleaning tissue or cloth. If all else fails, use a clean soft cloth with a good quality window cleaning fluid. Don’t touch your lens with a dry cloth or ordinary household tissues. Cleaning the exciter lamp and photoelectric cell lenses can be difficult, depending on their locations. If you can, just blow any dust off the lens. You may have to use a cotton bud dipped in lens cleaner to get into a really tight spot. Don’t use a dry cotton bud. Most importantly, don’t be tempted to dismantle any exciter lamp housings unless you know how to reset them precisely. Some of them are very tricky to get right.

Keeping your projector clean has to be a top priority. Always store your projector with the manufacturer’s soft cover in place. If the original cover has passed on to better things, make a replacement using an old sheet or drape a towel over the projector as a temporary measure.

2. Set up the reel arms.

Set up the reel arms and make sure they are secure so they will not collapse when loaded with full reels.

3. Connect an external speaker to the projector.

A single speaker should be positioned off the floor as close as possible to the centre of the screen. Make sure the connecting cable is well away from aisles and other places where people can trip over it. If you can’t avoid laying it on the floor, either gaffer tape it down or cover it with carpet. With multiple speakers you will probably be using a separate amplifier, and setting up for the best sound will be a matter of experimentation.

4. If you are screening a cinemascope print, make sure the anamorphic lens is fitted on its bracket in front of the fixed lens, firmly in position.

5. Locate the nearest wall power socket and lay out the power cable ready to plug in. Make sure it is taped down or covered by carpet.

6. Many projectors have a switch that has two settings for lamp brightness. Set the switch to low. Under most circumstances the lower brightness will not be noticed, but your lamp will last much longer.

Section 3: Threading the projector  

Allowing for physical differences between projectors, the following procedures apply universally. Where there are differences, refer to your user handbook in Part 4.

Don’t be afraid to fiddle around. But don’t loosen any nuts, change any settings or remove any screws until you know what they do. Follow the general principles outlined in this manual, use old film that you keep for testing, and, if you can find someone who knows about these things, ask questions. More detailed information on particular projectors is contained in Part 4.

Manual threading

All threading should be done manually. Manual threading familiarizes the projectionist with the machine; it keeps the projectionist aware of the need for a clean projector, and is a virtual guarantee that the projector will be cleaned properly and regularly. Manual threading is simple and reliable and takes only marginally longer than automatic or semi automatic methods which have more to go wrong with them; and manual threading is much less likely to damage precious film. Finally, it’s much easier to achieve seamless reel changeovers when you can set your cues manually, because you can get them exactly right every time. (see also Section 5 below, Screening, Changeovers).

1. Load the reels.

Load an empty reel on the take up arm. In most cases the take up arm is located to your left (the rear of the projector) as you look at the projector from the operating side. (If you are having difficulty working out which arm does what (refer to Chapter 4 below, Troubleshooting – getting started). Check the empty reel is the same capacity or larger than the full reel you intend screening, and that it is in good condition. If appropriate, close the keeper that prevents the reel slipping off the spindle.

Note: Be wary of 2000 ft reels, which look the same as 2200 ft reels because they have the same external diameter. You can tell the difference between the two by comparing their core diameters. The 2200 ft reel has a much smaller core. To make sure, check the footage numbers that are embossed on the reels.

After identifying the print, and making sure you have the right reel in the right order, untape its leader.

Load the full reel on to the feed arm so the film comes off the top of the reel to the right (clockwise). If appropriate, close the spindle keeper.  Hold the end of the leader in your left hand and unroll a metre or so of film by rotating the feed reel clockwise with your right. Be careful not to let any film fall on the floor.

Before you go any further, check the perforations are on the near side of the film. If they are not you still have some work to do on the rewind bench before you can start threading. (See Getting the film ready, above.)

If you have a projector that only auto loads, or is too difficult to load manually, read no further. Skip to the section below (Slot loading and Automatic loading) that applies to your projector.

Insert the tip of the leader from the left into the slot in the core of the take up reel. Hold the leader in place with a finger and slowly rotate the take up reel clockwise until the leader is securely held and any slack film is taken up. Make sure the take up reel is not buckled or crimped by turning it for a few revolutions and watching to see if the leader catches anywhere. If you have any doubts, replace the suspect reel immediately.

Unroll more leader from the feed reel and take it up until you can see your preferred starting point (eg the number ‘4’ or your own special cue mark) on the leader. If there is no numbered leader, measure off 24 frames of leader for every second of countdown you want to have. You can cut and keep a strip of light ply or vinyl and keep it handy for this purpose.

Make sure the projector motor switch is set at ‘Off’ and that when the motor is switched on the projector will run forwards. On most projectors the controls are clearly marked.

2. Threading starts at the lamp aperture.

Note: Setting the leader with the number 8 over the aperture is traditional (‘8 in the gate’) in commercial cinema, where cue dots signal reel changes. Since the adoption of single reel systems, cue dots are now rarely used. For 16 mm screenings, where seamless changeovers are highly desirable but not critical, a shorter countdown is adequate. If you want to execute changeovers you will need some sort of system (see Changeovers below). You can’t always rely on numbers or cue dots, because many 16 mm films are missing so many frames they have lost all practical value. It is better to have a method you can easily adopt and rely on for all screenings.

You can set your standard countdown by having a strip of material, such as light ply, cut to the length you want your countdown leader to be. For each second of countdown allow 24 frames. For example, if you want a countdown of three seconds (72 frames) make your countdown marker that length. It only takes a couple of minutes to do the job. Before threading simply lay your marker along the leader with one end on the film’s first image frame and the other along the leader. This end marks the point at which the leader is set in front of the aperture during threading.

Hold the film at the cue point and draw film down off both reels until it touches the bench or projector stand. You now have enough slack to start threading. Open the gate by swinging open the lens bracket. Some lenses have latches that must be released before they will swing open. Open the shoes on the feed and take up sprockets. Open any pressure rollers.

Note: The feed sprocket is likely to be the one closest to the top of the gate. To find out, use the inching wheel to run the projector forwards. While this is happening, note the rotational direction of the sprockets. The sprocket that is turning towards the top of the gate is the feed sprocket.

Hold the leader loosely in the gate so that the cue point sits in front of the lamp aperture. Working from the gate towards the feed reel, set the top loop, position the leader in the feed sprocket with the teeth sitting in the perforations and close the sprocket shoe. Test the leader’s setting in the sprocket by gently tugging the leader left and then right, or vice versa. If it is set properly you will feel the leader move slightly then stop when it encounters the sprocket teeth. If there is no slack the sprocket teeth may be pressing against the film, rather than sitting in the perforations. Release the shoe and draw the film one way or the other until you feel it click into place.

Note: If the film is set in the sprocket correctly, but you can’t feel any slack, the shoe clearance may need to be reset. Check the recommended clearance ( see Part 5), and if you can, adjust it. If a technical reference is unavailable, the general rule of thumb for shoe clearances is two film thicknesses.

Tip: With your projector it may be easier to begin threading with the feed sprocket before setting the top loop and then positioning the film in the gate, with your cue point in front of the lamp aperture. You’ll soon work it out. Whichever way you do it, this part of threading is the key to getting the rest of it right.

Most projectors have some sort of guide printed or embossed on them to indicate the loop sizes. If your projector doesn’t provide guides, follow these general principles.

The top loop can be almost any size, because its only function is to provide enough slack film for the claw to pull down without retarding the constant forward progress of the film. A rough guide is to set the top loop so the film enters the gate vertically, without any curve on it at point of entry. If the top loop is too small the film will rub on the top of the gate. If it is too big it will flap and flutter, adding to the general noise level and probably not doing the film much good.

Make sure the leader is sitting correctly in the gate before closing it. Test the setting by gently sliding the leader up and down a few millimeters. The leader should slide freely unless it engages the claw. If the claw is exposed it will catch the perforations and stop further movement. When you close the gate, make sure you hear and feel it locking into position.

Tip: After you have set the film in the gate, check if there are any splices or perforation repairs anywhere between the top loop and the feed reel. It is a good idea to set them forward of the top loop, to reduce the possibility of problems at startup.

The bottom loop must be set more precisely than the top loop. Its size is important in synchronizing image and sound, as the exciter lamp must strike the soundtrack exactly 26 frames ahead of the lamp aperture, give or take three frames. If the bottom loop is too large the sound will be out of sync, which is very distracting during dialogue scenes. If it is too small, the projector will protest loudly in the form of ‘chatter’. Most projectors have automatic loop restorers that will make the necessary adjustment.

Tip: If your projector doesn’t have an automatic loop restorer, or if it isn’t working, you might be able to restore the bottom loop by flicking the film down with a pencil. Some projectionists insist you can use a finger for the purpose. You can pick them by their short index fingers.

After setting the bottom loop, thread the leader under any pinch rollers and over the sound drum. Ensure the pinch rollers are closed. They ensure the film travels over the sound drum at a constant speed.

From here it is on to the take up sprocket, which will have a spring loaded shoe, like the feed sprocket. Again, test the film is correctly located in the sprocket by moving it slightly one way then the other. Then make sure the film passes under the tension (or snubber) roller that absorbs sudden jerks from the take up reel, especially at startup, before it finishes up on the take up reel. Check the film is lying inside all guides, rollers and sprockets. Your user handbook will have a threading chart you can check your work against. After a bit of practice you will develop a feel for how the leader should lie in the gate and sprockets, and for the correct size of the loops.

Test your threading by rotating the inching wheel forwards. If all is well, the sprockets will turn, the film will advance smoothly and the take up reel will rotate clockwise. If the film doesn’t move immediately, don’t worry; just keep rotating the inching wheel until things start moving as they should. If they aren’t moving after a few seconds, you might have a problem. Check the threading. Test again. If it doesn’t work this time, open everything up and thread again from the beginning (See also Chapter 4. Troubleshooting, Threading).

Slot loading projectors

In slot loaders the film is slipped into a slot that runs around the side of the machine. All you have to do then is turn the machine on, after which mysterious things happen, the film is automatically positioned where it is supposed to be in the film path and you are ready to start your show. In the heyday of 16mm film slot loaders were very popular. They are easy to use and when they work well they make life very easy for projectionists. But when things go wrong slot loaders can be the stuff nightmares are made of. If the slot loading mechanism decides not to participate and you have to thread manually it can be a real test of your ingenuity and patience. Some slot loaders also have the undesirable habit of starting the motor and lamp simultaneously.

Automatic threading

In fully automatic threading projectors retracting guides are placed at strategic points along the film path and a special take up reel is fitted on the take up arm. After the mechanism is set the motor is started, the film is fed in and directed by the guides along the film path until it is picked up and loaded by the special take up reel. The mechanism automatically releases when threading is completed. The main problem with fully automatic threading is the special reel, which has to be retrieved for re-use after every screening.

These machines can be threaded without the special take up reel by setting the guides, turning the motor on and feeding the film into the start of the film path. After sufficient leader has emerged at the other end of the film path the motor is turned off and a tug on the film or the tension roller retracts the guides. The leader is then attached normally to an ordinary take up reel.

When it works, automatic threading is very convenient. But, as with slot loading there is a lot to go wrong and it doesn’t save much time or add anything to the challenges or pleasure of projecting. When it goes off the rails it can damage film, especially where the mechanism is concealed and the projectionist cannot see what is happening in time to shut down quickly.

When threading automatically the following procedures are mandatory:  

1. Trim the leader. All projectors with automatic threading function have trimmers built into them.

2. Activate the threading mechanism that sets the guides in position. This is generally done by pressing a lever or button that is clearly marked. After it is activated, the mechanism locks in place until it is released. If you forget to set the guides, and if your projector doesn’t make provision for your forgetfulness, the film can be damaged because it has nowhere to go after it enters the projector. At the very least it will be creased, which won’t improve its chances of loading automatically at the next attempt.

3. When the guides are set in place switch the motor on. Insert the end of the leader at the start of the film path until it is drawn into the machine. If all is well, the film will be guided along the film path and emerge ready to load on the take up reel. Allow a couple of metres to emerge before switching off the motor.

4. Tug on the film or tension roller to release the automatic threading mechanism. This will cause the guides to retract away from the film path. If you forget to retract the guides they will interfere with the passage of the film during screening.

If the film does not automatically thread properly, stop the projector immediately. With some projectors it is easy to release the guides, open whatever needs to be opened and retrieve the leader. You can then search for and fix the problem. Possible causes include: incorrectly trimmed leader; adhesive on the leader; badly damaged leader; the guides have not been properly set; the film path is obstructed by accumulated dirt and the gate is not properly closed. This list is not exhaustive.

Theoretically, any automatic threading problem can be fixed, after which you can start all over again. However, by the time you finish you could have t